Compass Surveying: Calculation of Interior Angles from Bearings

Artificial Intelligence in surveying

What is intelligence?

The ability of problem solving demonstrates intelligence. Consider a mouse trying to search/reach the piece of cheese placed at right top corner of the image the mouse can find more than one solutions to this problem. We can say that the mouse is intelligent enough to find a solution to the problem. Hence the ability of problem solving demonstrates intelligence. Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world, varying kinds and degrees of intelligence occur in people, many animals and some machines.

Artificial Intelligence, or AI for short, is a combination of computer science, physiology, and philosophy. AI is a broad topic, consisting of different fields, from machine vision to expert systems. The element that the fields of AI have in common is the creation of machines that can "think". One of the most challenging approaches facing experts is building systems that mimic the behaviour of the human brain, made up of billions of neurons, and arguably the most complex matter in the universe.

 Artificial Intelligence

These benefits can also be seen in several new technologies that are being driven by Artificial Intelligence (AI). This includes Building Information Modelling (BIM), a system which involves creating a comprehensive digital description that will be worked on collaboratively, throughout each stage of the project. These precise 3D models contain a wealth of data relating to every physical and functional element of the build. Concerning AI, the ability to incorporate machine learning with qualities of human intelligence has already began to infiltrate these systems. For instance, the analysis of large quantities of data has several practical applications for quality control assessments. More specifically, by utilising theoretical techniques, AI can successfully optimise the process and effectively account for any logistically issues well in advance. Resulting in significant savings being made once the project finally reaches the building phase.

When it comes to surveying, the combination of AI and BIM has several major implications for the profession. By automating many of their core responsibilities, surveyors will find that BIM enables them to more effectively conduct their day-to-day work. For example, the ability to access a shared 3D visualization of the site assists in their analysis and control over the process.

Problems Of Artificial Intelligence

A. Deduction, reasoning, problem solving Early AI researchers developed algorithms that imitated the step-by-step reasoning that human beings use when they solve puzzles, play board games or make logical deductions. By the late 80s and 90s, AI research had also developed highly successful methods for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics. For difficult problems, most of these algorithms can require enormous computational resources — most experience a "combinatorial explosion": the amount of memory or computer time required becomes astronomical when the problem goes beyond a certain size. The search for more efficient problem solving algorithms is a high priority for AI research. Human beings solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments rather than the conscious, step-by-step deduction that early AI research was able to model. AI has made some progress at imitating this kind of "sub-symbolic" problem solving: embodied approaches emphasize the importance of sensor motor skills to higher reasoning; neural net research attempts to simulate the structures inside human and animal brains that gives rise to this skill.

B. Knowledge representation

Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI research. Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are: objects, properties, categories and relations between objects; situations, events, states and time; causes and effects; knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know); and many other, less well researched domains. A complete representation of "what exists" is an ontology (borrowing a word from traditional philosophy), of which the most general are called upper ontology.

C. Planning

Intelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them. They need a way to visualize the future (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the utility (or "value") of the available choices. In some planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be. However, if this is not true, it must periodically check if the world matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty.

D. Learning Machine

 learning has been central to AI research from the beginning. Unsupervised learning is the ability to find patterns in a stream of input. Supervised learning includes both classification (be able to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories) and regression (given a set of numerical input/output examples, discover a continuous function that would generate the outputs from the inputs). In reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. These can be analyzed in terms of decision theory, using concepts like utility. The mathematical analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch of theoretical computer science known as computational learning theory.

 E. Natural language processing

Natural language processing gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that the human beings speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently powerful natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing include information retrieval (or text mining) and machine translation

. F. Motion and Manipulation

 ASIMO uses sensors and intelligent algorithms to avoid obstacles and navigate stairs. The field of robotics is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation and navigation, with sub-problems of localization (knowing where you are), mapping (learning what is around you) and motion planning (figuring out how to get there).

G. Perception Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, sonar and others more exotic) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input. A few selected sub problems are speech recognition, facial recognition and object recognition. H. Creativity A sub-field of AI addresses creativity both theoretically (from a philosophical and psychological perspective)

Drones

Firstly, the surveying industry has seen a significant growth in the use of drone related technology. This is because, by making use of these unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), surveyors can now conduct their day-to-day tasks with relative ease and increased efficiency, as well as gather useful information for future consideration.

More specifically, the mobility and verticality of these UAVs have allowed surveyors to inspect areas that have previously been deemed unsafe for access. Not only reducing the risk of personal injury for many inspectors, but also providing a cost-effective solution to a previously time-consuming task. By making use of the device’s autonomous controls, a surveyor can program a drone to automatically take a large aerial map of a site, before returning to its original location and uploading the material to a secure sever. This increased mobility and automation not only saves time during the actual inspection, but also allows the surveyor to collect several high-resolution images of these locations for future reference. In some cases, these images can even be collated into detailed, photorealistic 3D maps of the area. Meaning that the data can be interpreted via a highly accurate visual that not only reduces the need for excessive jargon, but also the risk of potential discrepancies or inconsistencies.

The benefits of Drones in the surveying industry has become so prevalent that some firms have even begun to host Continuing Professional Development (CPD) courses on their uses. However, it should also be noted that, under the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) a restricted or full NQE (National Qualified Entities) is now required for any type of commercial drone use.

Field Work On Steroids

When the time arrives for field work to begin, a technician is dispatched in an autonomous electric truck pre-programmed to go directly to the site. The truck is loaded with various survey-grade instruments and equipment (all GNSS equipped): vertical take-off fixed wing and multi-rotor UAVs (both with lidar, photo, hyper-spectral, and GPR sensors), an autonomous mobile ground robot (with GPR/lidar sensors), and an RFID reader for boundary location.

The technician works with the equipment through a universal tablet computer controlling both aerial and ground data collection simultaneously, depicting the progress of the work in real time. This gives the technician time to locate the boundary points with the handheld GNSS receiver/RFID reader to verify the limits of the property.

Once the autonomous work is finished, the technician processes the data on site, and software compares collection coverage versus the initial site review. When processing is complete, the technician will utilize a handheld GNSS receiver with lidar sensor to obtain remote areas not collected by the other methods.

The remaining data is compiled with autonomous data and re-analyzed for overall coverage and approved by the software for completeness. Once the computer determines everything has been collected, the technician checks the complete box and leaves the site.

Office Work And Wrap-Up

The final field data is uploaded to cloud servers as the technician leaves the site and the survey PM is notified by electronic message of the field task completion. Thomas, the digital surveying assistant, takes the lead and begins the final processing. The data is reviewed for completeness, parsed for any anomalies within the downloads, and compiled into one database for building a 3D model of the site.

Photo and lidar data are compared for accuracy, utilities are verified against existing records and easements, and building characteristics are matched against governmental records for zoning code compliance.

 Once this analysis is complete, the final drafting takes place to create the final deliverable. While the data within the model contains attributes of each entity, labels are placed interactively throughout the site to help depict the site information. This model is also suitable for use by architects and planners to utilize in their B.I.M. design programs, so the quality in the modeling output is top notch.

The final deliverable contains an overall report documenting site conditions, drainage characteristics and physical conditions of various entities. This report will also detail potential site encroachments, possible drainage issues, and zoning/parking red flags. Thomas will report back to the survey PM that all final checks have been made and deliverables made for submittal to the client, leaving only the final transmittal left to do.

Once the deliverable is received by the client, Sheldon (the B2B automated assistant) recognizes the delivery and begins the process of payment to the surveyor. With standardized surveys, automated assistant/analyzation systems, and trackable processes through blockchain, the client gets a quality product at a market rate in an acceptable timeframe and the surveyor gets paid in a reasonable period.

 

 

  

Compass Surveying| Types of Compass | Advantages & Disadvantages of Compass Surveying |

 Compass surveying

Compass surveying is the branch of surveying in which the position of an object is located using angular measurements determined by a compass and linear measurements using a chain or tape. Compass surveying is used in the following circumstances:

• If the surveying area is large, chain surveying is not adopted for surveying rather compass surveying is employed.
• If the plot for surveying has numerous obstacles and undulations which prevents chaining.
• If there is a time limit for surveying, compass surveying is usually adopted

Compass surveying is not used in places that contain iron core, power lines etc which usually attracts magnets due to their natural properties and electromagnetic properties respectively. Compass surveying is done by using traversing. A traverse is formed by connecting the points in the plot by means of a series of straight lines.

Magnetic compass

The magnetic compass is used to find out the magnetic bearing of survey lines. The bearings may either measured in the Whole Circle Bearing (W.C.B) system or in the Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B) system based on the type of compass used. The basic principle of the magnetic compass is if a strip of steel or iron is magnetized and pivoted exactly at centre so that it can swing freely, then it will establish itself in the magnetic meridian at the place of arrangement.

Major types of the magnetic compass are:

1. Prismatic compass
2. Surveyor’s compass
3. Level compass

Prismatic compass

A prismatic compass is a portable magnetic compass that can be either used as a hand instrument or can be fitted on a tripod. It contains a prism that is used for accurate measurement of readings. The greatest advantage of this compass is both sighting and reading can be done simultaneously without changing the position.

Major parts of a Prismatic Compass are:

• Magnetic needle
• Graduated ring
• Adjustable mirror
• Sliding arrangement for mirror
• Object vane
• Eye vane
• Metal box
• Glass cover
• Horse hair

Adjustments of prismatic compass

Two types of adjustments:

1. Temporary adjustment
2. Permanent adjustment

Temporary adjustments

• Centering: it is the process of fixing the compass exactly over the station. Centering is usually done by adjusting the tripod legs. Also a plumb-bob is used to judge the accurate centering of instruments over the station.
• Leveling:  the instrument has to be leveled if it is used as in hand or mounted over a tripod. If it is used as in hand, the graduated disc should swing freely and appears to be completely level in reference to the top edge of the case. If the tripod is used, they usually have a ball and socket arrangement for leveling purpose.
• Focusing the prism: Prism can be slide up or down for focusing to make the readings clear and readable.

Permanent adjustments are same as in the Surveyor’s compass.

Surveyor’s compass

Surveyor’s compass consists of a circular brass box containing a magnetic needle which swings freely over a brass circle which is divided into 360 degrees. The horizontal angle is measured using a pair of sights located on north – south axis of the compass. They are usually mounted over a tripod and leveled using a ball and socket mechanism.

They also have two types of adjustments, temporary and permanent. Temporary adjustments are same as described in prismatic compass.

Permanent adjustments

They are done only in the circumstances where the internal parts of the prism is disturbed or damaged. They are:

• Adjustments in levels
• Adjustment of pivot point
• Adjustment of sight vanes
• Adjustment of needle

Errors in compass survey

Errors can be arising due to various reasons during the process of surveying, they are classified as:

• Instrumental errors
• Personal errors
• Natural errors

Instrumental errors

As the name suggests they are arise due to the wrong adjustments of the instruments. Some other reasons are:

• If the plane of sight not being vertical, it causes error in sighting and reading.
• If the magnetic needle is not perfectly straight or if it is sluggish, readings may not be accurate.

Personal errors

They arise mainly due to the carelessness of the surveyor. They are:

• Inaccurate leveling
• Inaccurate reading
• Inaccurate centering

Natural errors

Natural errors are occurring due to the various natural causes which affect the working of compass. It has nothing to do with the surveyor and to minimize them, some corrections in calculations applied. They are:

• Local attraction
• Proximity to the magnetic storms
• declination

Difference btwn prismatic and surveyor compass

whole circle bearing

In whole circle bearing (WCB) the bearing of a line at any point is measured with respect to a meridian. Its value varies from zero to 360°, increasing in clockwise direction. Zero is north direction, 90° is east,180° is south and 270° is west .This type of bearing is used in prismatic compass.

In reduced bearing (RB) system, bearings are measured from north or south direction towards east or west. Hence, angles are from 0 to 90° .. This system of measuring bearings is used in Surveyor’s compass and it is also known as Quadrantal Bearing (QB). The bearing measured is designated with letter N or S in the beginning to indicate whether it is from north or south. The letter E or W written after the angle indicates whether the bearing read is towards east or west, respectively. The conversion of the bearing from one system to the other system can be easily carried out by drawing a sketch to indicate WCB or RB .It may be observed that conversion table

is as given below:

Linear measurement in survey in hindi

What is linear measurement?

एक इंजीनियरिंग सर्वेक्षण में, एक सर्वेक्षण पूरा करने के लिए रैखिक क्षैतिज दूरी को मापा जाना है। पृथ्वी की सतह पर दो बिंदुओं के बीच इस रैखिक क्षैतिज दूरी के माप को रैखिक माप के रूप में जाना जाता है। रैखिक माप विभिन्न उपकरणों द्वारा प्राप्त किया जा सकता है। माप प्रकार को विभाजित किया जा सकता है, प्रत्यक्ष माप विधि, ऑप्टिकल माप विधि और इलेक्ट्रॉनिक माप विधि, उपकरण के प्रकार पर निर्भर करता है जिसका उपयोग दूरी को मापने के लिए किया जाता है।

Video lecture

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPN5xhRLli0

DIRECT MEASUREMENT METHOD

लंबाई को मापना और कठिन समीकरणों को हल करने की कोई आवश्यकता नहीं है ..! प्रत्यक्ष तरीकों में, श्रृंखला या टेप का उपयोग करके वास्तव में क्षेत्र के काम के दौरान दूरी को मापा जाता है।

Chaining  करते समय निम्नलिखित उपकरणों का उपयोग किया जाता है:

चेन

टेप

तीर

रेंजिंग छड़ और ऑफसेट छड़

खूंटे

सीधा लटकना

CHAIN

प्रत्यक्ष माप सीधे माप प्राप्त कर रहा है जिसका मतलब है कि सीधे सरल उपकरणों का उपयोग करके श्रृंखला 100 मिमी या 150 टुकड़ों के जस्ती हल्के स्टील के तार से बनी होती है जिसे लिंक कहा जाता है, दोनों सिरों पर अंडाकार छल्ले और हैंडल के साथ जुड़ जाता है। प्रत्येक लिंक का अंत एक लूप में झुकता है और तीन अंडाकार छल्ले के माध्यम से एक साथ जुड़ा होता है। श्रृंखला के सिरों को आसान हैंडलिंग के लिए पीतल के हैंडल के साथ प्रदान किया गया है। श्रृंखला की लंबाई को एक हैंडल से दूसरे हैंडल तक मापा जाता है

इन विधियों का उपयोग टोही सर्वेक्षण में या बेहतर तरीकों से मापने के दौरान की गई बड़ी गलतियों का पता लगाने के लिए किया जाता है। चिकनी सड़कों पर वे 1 प्रतिशत त्रुटि के भीतर परिणाम दे सकते हैं।

(i) पेसिंग

(ii) पासोमीटर का उपयोग करना

(iii) पेडोमीटर का उपयोग करना

(iv) ओडोमीटर या द्वारा का उपयोग करना

(v) स्पीडोमीटर का उपयोग करना।

पेसिंग: इस विधि में सर्वेक्षक मापी जाने वाली लाइन के साथ चलता है और चरणों की संख्या को गिनता है। फिर मापी गई दूरी कदमों की संख्या × एक कदम की औसत लंबाई के बराबर है।

एक ज्ञात लंबाई के साथ चलने से एक कदम की औसत लंबाई पाई जा सकती है। एक सामान्य आदमी 0.75 मीटर से 0.8 मीटर की लंबाई का कदम रखता है।

पासोमीटर का उपयोग करना: एक पासमीटर एक घड़ी की तरह का उपकरण है जो शर्ट की जेब में लंबवत किया जाता है या एक पैर से बंधा होता है। यह उठाए गए कदमों की संख्या को रिकॉर्ड करता है। इस प्रकार संख्या की गिनती की समस्या रैखिक माप की इस अनुमानित विधि में समाप्त हो जाती है।

पासोमीटर एक इलेक्ट्रोमैकेनिकल और पोर्टेबल इंस्ट्रूमेंट है, जो बॉडी मूवमेंट के पेस या वेलोसिटी की संख्या को गिनता है। यह स्वचालित रूप से पेस की संख्या रिकॉर्ड करता है। इसका तंत्र शरीर की गति से संचालित हो रहा है।

पेडोमीटर का उपयोग करना: यह उपकरण पासोमीटर के समान है लेकिन यह चरणों की संख्या के बजाय दूरी को रिकॉर्ड कर सकता है। इसमें चलने से पहले स्टेप लेंथ की जीरो सेटिंग और सेटिंग की जाती है।

पेडोमीटर एक इलेक्ट्रोमैकेनिकल भी है और एक पोर्टेबल इंस्ट्रूमेंट भी है, जो व्यक्ति के हाथों या कूल्हों की गति का पता लगाकर प्रत्येक चरण को गिनता है। मुख्य रूप से यह दूरी को गिनता है कि उपयोगकर्ता कितना गुजरता है। या उसने कितनी दूरी पार की। इसे ले जाने वाले व्यक्ति की गति की लंबाई के अनुसार समायोजित किया जाता है। बेहतर माप के लिए इसे लंबवत रूप से उपयोग करना महत्वपूर्ण है।

ओडोमीटर: यह यंत्र एक चक्र या अन्य वाहन के पहिये से जुड़ा होता है। यह पहिया द्वारा किए गए क्रांतियों की संख्या को रिकॉर्ड करता है। पहिए की परिधि को जानने के बाद, दूरी तय की जा सकती है।

स्पीडोमीटर: सीधे दूरी देने के लिए कैलिब्रेटेड ओडोमीटर को स्पीडोमीटर कहा जाता है। यह केवल विशेष वाहन के लिए उपयोग किया जाना है। सभी ऑटोमोबाइल को स्पीडोमीटर के साथ प्रदान किया जाता है। नापी जाने वाली लाइन के साथ वाहन को चलाकर पाया जा सकता है।

chain 

चेन या टेप का उपयोग करके दूरियों की माप को चैनिंग कहा जाता है। यह सर्वेक्षण में सटीक और आमतौर पर नियोजित तरीका है: इन उपकरणों को वर्गीकृत किया जा सकता है

 (i) श्रृंखला

(ii) स्टील बैंड और

(iii) टेप।

(i) जंजीरों: जंजीरों को 4 मिमी व्यास के 100 टुकड़ों से बनाया जाता है, जो हल्के स्टील के तारों को अंत में छल्ले में बांधता है और तीन गोलाकार या अंडाकार आकार के छल्ले द्वारा एक दूसरे से जुड़ जाता है। ये छल्ले श्रृंखला को लचीलापन देते हैं। जंजीरों के सिरों को कुंडा जोड़ों के साथ प्रदान किया जाता है

Metric Chain

भारत में मीट्रिक चेन सबसे अधिक इस्तेमाल की जाने वाली श्रृंखला है। इस प्रकार की जंजीरें कई लंबाई में आती हैं जैसे 5, 10, 20 और 30 मीटर। सबसे अधिक इस्तेमाल किया जाता है 20m श्रृंखला। त्वरित पढ़ने के लिए श्रृंखला के प्रत्येक 2 मीटर पर टैली प्रदान की जाती हैं। इस प्रकार की श्रृंखला की प्रत्येक कड़ी 0.2 मी है। श्रृंखला की कुल लंबाई अंत में पीतल के हैंडल पर चिह्नित है।

Gunter's chain or surveyor’s chain

गंटर चेन मानक 66 फीट में आती है। इन श्रृंखलाओं में 100 लिंक होते हैं, प्रत्येक लिंक 0.66ft या 7.92 इंच का होता है। लंबाई 66 फीट का चयन किया जाता है क्योंकि यह भूमि माप में सुविधाजनक है।

10 वर्ग गंटर की श्रृंखला = 1 एकड़

10 गंटर चेन = 1 फर्लांग

80 गंटर चेन = 1 मिलिटर चेन या सर्वेयर की चेन

Engineer’s chain

यह चेन 100 फीट लंबाई में आती है। इसके 100 लिंक से प्रत्येक लिंक 1 फीट लंबा होता है। प्रत्येक 10 लिंक पर 10 लिंक के संकेत के लिए एक पीतल की अंगूठी या टैग प्रदान किए जाते हैं। पैर और दशमलव में रीडिंग ली जाती है।

राजस्व श्रृंखला

Revenue Chain

इस प्रकार की श्रृंखला का मानक आकार 33 फीट है। लिंक की संख्या 16 है, प्रत्येक लिंक 2 फीट है। यह श्रृंखला आमतौर पर कैडस्ट्राल सर्वेक्षण में उपयोग की जाती है।

Introduction of survey

FUNDAMENTALS OF CONVENTIONAL SURVEYING AND LEVELLING DEFINITION OF SURVEYING 

 Surveying is the art of determining the relative position above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or indirect measurements of distance, direction and elevation. 

 It also includes the art of establishing points by predetermined angular & Linear Measurements.